studies on the brain and emotions

Conscious. On the other hand, overactivity of this system promotes excessively impulsive behaviors attended by manic thoughts and psychotic delusions. doi: 10.1037/a0026609, Urry, H. L., and Gross, J. J. Trends Cogn. The heart’s input to the brain during stressful or negative emotions also has a profound effect on the brain’s emotional processes—actually serving to reinforce the emotional experience of stress. The results also showed that strong negative emotional valence appeared to enhance the processing of early sensory input. Nonetheless, the emotional experiences guide behavior to promote survival and procreative success as well as mediate learning (‘rewarding’ and ‘punishing’ learning effects) and thinking at secondary and tertiary levels. They concluded the change was associated with heightened attention in association with improved performance in memory and emotional processing. Memory–a century of consolidation. Structurally, the PFC is divided into five sub-regions: anterior (BA 10), dorsolateral (BA 9 and 46), ventrolateral (BA 44, 45, and 47), medial (BA 25 and 32) and orbitofrontal (BA 11, 12, and 14) (Simons and Spiers, 2003). Lett. Imaging cognition II: an empirical review of 275 PET and fMRI studies. This means that fMRI having a coarse temporal resolution (several seconds) when compared with electrophysiological techniques (a few milliseconds) and also not a great technique for visualizing subcortical regions (mesencephalon and brainstem) due to metabolically sluggish compared to PET. Natl. Based on numerous previous findings, future research might take emotional factors more seriously and more explicitly in terms of their potential impact on learning. The role of valence focus and arousal focus. Headley, D. B., and Paré, D. (2013). Biol. doi: 10.3758/CABN.4.3.294. Table 1 summarizes cognitive-emotional functions associated with each sub-region of the PFC and corresponding Brodmann areas. We then present the important factors for consideration in experimental design, followed by a description of psychiatric disorders, such as depression and anxiety, which are emotionally charged dysfunctions that are strongly detrimental to cognitive performance. Neuron 35, 989–996. Aftanas, L., and Golocheikine, S. (2001). The latter increases attention toward salient new information by selectively enhancing detection, evaluation, and extraction of data for memorization. doi: 10.3758/CABN.9.2.173, Hock, C., Mueller-Spahn, F., Schuh-Hofer, S., Hofmann, M., Dirnagl, U., and Villringer, A. doi: 10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00197-9, Cuthbert, B. N., Schupp, H. T., Bradley, M. M., Birbaumer, N., and Lang, P. J. J. Pers. Neurosci. Panksepp, J. Activation of the amygdala during the encoding of emotionally arousing information (both pleasant/unpleasant) has been reported that correlates with subsequent recall. The researchers then looked into the brain activity of their 696 participants, finding that the motoric region, an area known for planning and controlling, was more active in women when exposed to emotional imagery. This connection goes both ways. Annu. Spatiotemporal mapping of brain activity by integration of multiple imaging modalities. Primary emotional processing for homeostatic, sensory and emotional affects facilitate secondary learning and memory processing via the “SEEKING” system that promotes survival and reproductive success (bottom-up instinctual influences). (2000). Nature 411, 305–309. 3, 39–43. Like an expe… (2000). Neuro Psychopharmacol. Psychol. Psychol. Soc. Proc. doi: 10.1038/nn1353, Sharot, T., and Phelps, E. A. Sci. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.08.003, Panksepp, J. Psychol. Consistent findings were reported for recognition tasks investigated by fMRI where the left PFC-hippocampal network appeared to support successful memory encoding for neutral and negative non-arousing words. The role of attention and relatedness in emotionally enhanced memory. Proc. Behav. Psychol. Neurosci. Moreover, reward-related of functional connectivities between the (i) SN/VTA–MTL and (ii) SN/VTA–dmPFC appear to increases significantly with increases retrieval accuracy and subjective motivation. Shigemune, Y., Tsukiura, T., Nouchi, R., Kambara, T., and Kawashima, R. (2017). Neuroimage 55, 1200–1207. The main part of the brain responsible for processing emotions, the limbic system, is sometimes called the "emotional brain" [source: Brodal]. The innate emotional systems interact with higher brain systems and probably no an emotional state that is free of cognitive ramifications. They asked the participants to rate their responses to each scene from six basic emotions: happiness, surprise, fear, sadness, anger, and disgust. Consequently, it is the foundation of secondary learning and higher cognitive processes when compared with the remaining six emotional systems. As a consequence of such unpleasant physical reaction, he develops fear. Hum. 310, 57–60. This means your brain requires a constant supply of fuel. Neuroimage 10, 15–35. These factors are critical in educational domains because when students face such difficulties, it defeats the purpose of schooling and can potentially render it meaningless. Affective e-learning: using” Emotional” data to improve learning in pervasive learning environment. (2011a). 16, 174–184. Sci. doi: 10.1016/0005-7916(94)90063-9, Brod, G., Werkle-Bergner, M., and Shing, Y. L. (2013). Studies also show that intense emotions impair self-control. They demonstrated that the PFC is crucial for LTM because it engages with the active maintenance of information linked to the cognitive control of selection, engagement, monitoring, and inhibition. 14, 30–80. Neurophysiological investigation of the basis of the fMRI signal. Metcalfe, J., and Mischel, W. (1999). doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145102, Russell, J. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2010.08.028, Choudhary, M., Kumar, A., Tripathi, M., Bhatia, T., Shivakumar, V., Beniwal, R. P., et al. Cogn. We also summarize the current state of knowledge on the impact of emotion on memory and map implications for educational settings. are sensed by an interoceptive system (afferent peripheral nerves) that signals the sensory cortex (primary, secondary and somatosensory) for integration and processing. Similarly, emotionally enhanced memory functions have been reported in relation to selective attention elicited by emotionally salient stimuli (Vuilleumier, 2005; Schupp et al., 2007). (2012). doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.05958.x, Li, L., and Chen, J.-H. (2006). Even the definition of emotion is a topic of controversy. Higher cognitive functions operate within the cortical regions, including the frontal cortex for awareness and consciousness functions such as thinking, planning, emotional regulation and free-will (intention-to-act), which mediate emotional feelings. Electroencephalography studies have also revealed alpha asymmetry over prefrontal regions during withdrawal/avoidance processing. (1994). doi: 10.1016/S0304-3940(00)01092-2, Lane, R. D., Reiman, E. M., Bradley, M. M., Lang, P. J., Ahern, G. L., Davidson, R. J., et al. doi: 10.1080/026999398379574, Bartolic, E., Basso, M., Schefft, B., Glauser, T., and Titanic-Schefft, M. (1999). 19, 352–357. Sci. To summarize, both emotion and motivation are crucial for the maintenance of psychological and physiological homeostasis, while emotional roles are particularly important in the process of encoding new information containing emotional components. We then discuss the emerging studies that further our understanding of emotional effects deriving from different modalities of emotional content. It takes care of your thoughts and movements, your breathing and heartbeat, your senses it works hard 24/7, even while youre asleep. doi: 10.1073/pnas.93.15.8016, Cahill, L., and McGaugh, J. L. (1998). The impact of emotion on learning processes is the focus of many current studies. Rev. Electrophysiological differences in the processing of affective information in words and pictures. Primary emotional systems guide associative learning and memory (classical/operant conditioning and emotional habit) processes via the mediation of emotional networks. Instr. Neuroscientist 13, 280–291. J. Neurosci. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.06.015, Barbey, A. K., Koenigs, M., and Grafman, J. (1995). Ann. N. Y. Acad. 21, 294–299. doi: 10.1038/30976, Müller, M. M., Keil, A., Gruber, T., and Elbert, T. (1999). Strong emotion is intrinsically conscious at least in the sense that it is experienced even if we might mislabel it, or animal clearly is not able to attach a semantic label-these are simply not realistic standards for determining whether something is conscious or not conscious. This indicates increased attentional control of regulatory mechanisms that process emotional content. Copyright © 2017 Tyng, Amin, Saad and Malik. 69, 538–550. Brain activity linking negative emotions to a lower immune response against disease has been revealed for the first time, claim researchers. J. Pers. Emot. Successful memory encoding is associated with increased cross-frequency coupling between frontal theta and posterior gamma oscillations in human scalp-recorded EEG. emotions. Brain potentials in affective picture processing: covariation with autonomic arousal and affective report. Comparison of different emotional stimulus categories. 5, 184–194. Although functional neuroimaging enables us to identify brain regions of interest for cognitive and emotional processing, it is difficult to comprehend emotional influences on learning and memory retrieval without a fundamental understanding of the brain’s inherent emotional operating systems. 8:1454. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01454. The results revealed the activation of the amygdala in response to positive and negative valence (valence-independent) for pictures and words. Psychol. The processing of emotional facial expression is gated by spatial attention: evidence from event-related brain potentials. doi: 10.1016/0304-3940(93)90181-J, Vogel, S., and Schwabe, L. (2016). He went further to propose seven primary emotional systems/prototype emotional states, namely SEEKING, RAGE, FEAR, LUST, CARE, PANIC/GRIEF, and PLAY that represent basic foundations for living and learning. (2014). Although fMRI is widely used, it poses several limitations such as poor temporal resolution, expensive setup costs, plus the difficulty of having a subject hold still during the procedure in an electromagnetically shielded room (immobility). It thus far appears that increased rCBF in the mPFC, thalamus, hypothalamus, and midbrain associated with pleasant and unpleasant emotional processing, while unpleasant emotions are more specifically associated with the bilateral OTC, cerebellum, left parahippocampal gyrus, hippocampus, and amygdala; moreover, the caudate nucleus is associated with pleasant emotions. doi: 10.1101/lm.743507, Pegna, A. J., Khateb, A., Lazeyras, F., and Seghier, M. L. (2005). Biol. A more detailed study by Müller et al. Subsequent studies have demonstrated that the EEG spatial resolution can be improved using high-resolution EEG (high-density electrode arrays to increase spatial sampling) with surface Laplacian estimation and cortical imaging (details discussion of this area is beyond the scope of this review, see (Nunez et al., 1994) for theoretical and experimental study) or integrating multiple imaging modalities that provide complement information, for instance EEG-fMRI and EEG-fNIRS (Dale and Halgren, 2001). Pertanika J. Soc. However, an inverse relationship was observed in the lateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC and DLPFC) during non-emotional judgment (Northoff et al., 2004). doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2011.05.008, Bayer, M., Sommer, W., and Schacht, A. Moreover, Mega et al. Theta oscillations in the hippocampus. J. Neurosci. Think about it. The effects of emotion on attention: a review of attentional processing of emotional information. 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